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PERLFAQ4(1)
NAME
perlfaq4 - Data Manipulation ($Revision: 1.49 $, $Date: 1999/05/23 20:37:49
$)
DESCRIPTION
The section of the FAQ answers questions related to the manipulation of
data as numbers, dates, strings, arrays, hashes, and miscellaneous data
issues.
Data: Numbers
Why am I getting long decimals (eg, 19.9499999999999) instead of the
numbers I should be getting (eg, 19.95)?
The infinite set that a mathematician thinks of as the real numbers can
only be approximated on a computer, since the computer only has a finite
number of bits to store an infinite number of, um, numbers.
Internally, your computer represents floating-point numbers in binary.
Floating-point numbers read in from a file or appearing as literals in your
program are converted from their decimal floating-point representation (eg,
19.95) to an internal binary representation.
However, 19.95 can't be precisely represented as a binary floating-point
number, just like 1/3 can't be exactly represented as a decimal floating-
point number. The computer's binary representation of 19.95, therefore,
isn't exactly 19.95.
When a floating-point number gets printed, the binary floating-point
representation is converted back to decimal. These decimal numbers are
displayed in either the format you specify with printf(), or the current
output format for numbers. (See the section on "$#" in the perlvar manpage
if you use print. "$#" has a different default value in Perl5 than it did
in Perl4. Changing "$#" yourself is deprecated.)
This affects all computer languages that represent decimal floating-point
numbers in binary, not just Perl. Perl provides arbitrary-precision
decimal numbers with the Math::BigFloat module (part of the standard Perl
distribution), but mathematical operations are consequently slower.
To get rid of the superfluous digits, just use a format (eg,
"printf("%.2f", 19.95)") to get the required precision. See the Floating-
point Arithmetic entry in the perlop manpage.
Why isn't my octal data interpreted correctly?
Perl only understands octal and hex numbers as such when they occur as
literals in your program. If they are read in from somewhere and assigned,
no automatic conversion takes place. You must explicitly use oct() or
hex() if you want the values converted. oct() interprets both hex
("0x350") numbers and octal ones ("0350" or even without the leading "0",
like "377"), while hex() only converts hexadecimal ones, with or without a
leading "0x", like "0x255", "3A", "ff", or "deadbeef".
This problem shows up most often when people try using chmod(), mkdir(),
umask(), or sysopen(), which all want permissions in octal.
chmod(644, $file); # WRONG -- perl -w catches this
chmod(0644, $file); # right
Does Perl have a round() function? What about ceil() and floor()? Trig
functions?
Remember that int() merely truncates toward 0. For rounding to a certain
number of digits, sprintf() or printf() is usually the easiest route.
printf("%.3f", 3.1415926535); # prints 3.142
The POSIX module (part of the standard Perl distribution) implements
ceil(), floor(), and a number of other mathematical and trigonometric
functions.
use POSIX;
$ceil = ceil(3.5); # 4
$floor = floor(3.5); # 3
In 5.000 to 5.003 perls, trigonometry was done in the Math::Complex module.
With 5.004, the Math::Trig module (part of the standard Perl distribution)
implements the trigonometric functions. Internally it uses the
Math::Complex module and some functions can break out from the real axis
into the complex plane, for example the inverse sine of 2.
Rounding in financial applications can have serious implications, and the
rounding method used should be specified precisely. In these cases, it
probably pays not to trust whichever system rounding is being used by Perl,
but to instead implement the rounding function you need yourself.
To see why, notice how you'll still have an issue on half-way-point
alternation:
for ($i = 0; $i < 1.01; $i += 0.05) { printf "%.1f ",$i}
0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7
0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.0
Don't blame Perl. It's the same as in C. IEEE says we have to do this.
Perl numbers whose absolute values are integers under 2**31 (on 32 bit
machines) will work pretty much like mathematical integers. Other numbers
are not guaranteed.
How do I convert bits into ints?
To turn a string of 1s and 0s like "10110110" into a scalar containing its
binary value, use the pack() and unpack() functions (documented in the pack
entry in the perlfunc manpage and the unpack entry in the perlfunc
manpage):
$decimal = unpack('c', pack('B8', '10110110'));
This packs the string "10110110" into an eight bit binary structure. This
is then unpacked as a character, which returns its ordinal value.
This does the same thing:
$decimal = ord(pack('B8', '10110110'));
Here's an example of going the other way:
$binary_string = unpack('B*', "\x29");
Why doesn't & work the way I want it to?
The behavior of binary arithmetic operators depends on whether they're used
on numbers or strings. The operators treat a string as a series of bits
and work with that (the string ""3"" is the bit pattern "00110011"). The
operators work with the binary form of a number (the number "3" is treated
as the bit pattern "00000011").
So, saying "11 & 3" performs the "and" operation on numbers (yielding "1").
Saying ""11" & "3"" performs the "and" operation on strings (yielding
""1"").
Most problems with "&" and "|" arise because the programmer thinks they
have a number but really it's a string. The rest arise because the
programmer says:
if ("\020\020" & "\101\101") {
# ...
}
but a string consisting of two null bytes (the result of ""\020\020" &
"\101\101"") is not a false value in Perl. You need:
if ( ("\020\020" & "\101\101") !~ /[^\000]/) {
# ...
}
How do I multiply matrices?
Use the Math::Matrix or Math::MatrixReal modules (available from CPAN) or
the PDL extension (also available from CPAN).
How do I perform an operation on a series of integers?
To call a function on each element in an array, and collect the results,
use:
@results = map { my_func($_) } @array;
For example:
@triple = map { 3 * $_ } @single;
To call a function on each element of an array, but ignore the results:
foreach $iterator (@array) {
some_func($iterator);
}
To call a function on each integer in a (small) range, you can use:
@results = map { some_func($_) } (5 .. 25);
but you should be aware that the ".." operator creates an array of all
integers in the range. This can take a lot of memory for large ranges.
Instead use:
@results = ();
for ($i=5; $i < 500_005; $i++) {
push(@results, some_func($i));
}
This situation has been fixed in Perl5.005. Use of ".." in a "for" loop
will iterate over the range, without creating the entire range.
for my $i (5 .. 500_005) {
push(@results, some_func($i));
}
will not create a list of 500,000 integers.
How can I output Roman numerals?
Get the http://www.perl.com/CPAN/modules/by-module/Roman module.
Why aren't my random numbers random?
If you're using a version of Perl before 5.004, you must call "srand" once
at the start of your program to seed the random number generator. 5.004
and later automatically call "srand" at the beginning. Don't call "srand"
more than once--you make your numbers less random, rather than more.
Computers are good at being predictable and bad at being random (despite
appearances caused by bugs in your programs :-).
http://www.perl.com/CPAN/doc/FMTEYEWTK/random , courtesy of Tom Phoenix,
talks more about this. John von Neumann said, ``Anyone who attempts to
generate random numbers by deterministic means is, of course, living in a
state of sin.''
If you want numbers that are more random than "rand" with "srand" provides,
you should also check out the Math::TrulyRandom module from CPAN. It uses
the imperfections in your system's timer to generate random numbers, but
this takes quite a while. If you want a better pseudorandom generator than
comes with your operating system, look at ``Numerical Recipes in C'' at
http://www.nr.com/ .
Data: Dates
How do I find the week-of-the-year/day-of-the-year?
The day of the year is in the array returned by localtime() (see the
localtime entry in the perlfunc manpage):
$day_of_year = (localtime(time()))[7];
or more legibly (in 5.004 or higher):
use Time::localtime;
$day_of_year = localtime(time())->yday;
You can find the week of the year by dividing this by 7:
$week_of_year = int($day_of_year / 7);
Of course, this believes that weeks start at zero. The Date::Calc module
from CPAN has a lot of date calculation functions, including day of the
year, week of the year, and so on. Note that not all businesses consider
``week 1'' to be the same; for example, American businesses often consider
the first week with a Monday in it to be Work Week #1, despite ISO 8601,
which considers WW1 to be the first week with a Thursday in it.
How do I find the current century or millennium?
Use the following simple functions:
sub get_century {
return int((((localtime(shift || time))[5] + 1999))/100);
}
sub get_millennium {
return 1+int((((localtime(shift || time))[5] + 1899))/1000);
}
On some systems, you'll find that the POSIX module's strftime() function
has been extended in a non-standard way to use a "%C" format, which they
sometimes claim is the "century". It isn't, because on most such systems,
this is only the first two digits of the four-digit year, and thus cannot
be used to reliably determine the current century or millennium.
How can I compare two dates and find the difference?
If you're storing your dates as epoch seconds then simply subtract one from
the other. If you've got a structured date (distinct year, day, month,
hour, minute, seconds values), then for reasons of accessibility,
simplicity, and efficiency, merely use either timelocal or timegm (from the
Time::Local module in the standard distribution) to reduce structured dates
to epoch seconds. However, if you don't know the precise format of your
dates, then you should probably use either of the Date::Manip and
Date::Calc modules from CPAN before you go hacking up your own parsing
routine to handle arbitrary date formats.
How can I take a string and turn it into epoch seconds?
If it's a regular enough string that it always has the same format, you can
split it up and pass the parts to "timelocal" in the standard Time::Local
module. Otherwise, you should look into the Date::Calc and Date::Manip
modules from CPAN.
How can I find the Julian Day?
Use the Time::JulianDay module (part of the Time-modules bundle available
from CPAN.)
Before you immerse yourself too deeply in this, be sure to verify that it
is the Julian Day you really want. Are you really just interested in a way
of getting serial days so that they can do date arithmetic? If you are
interested in performing date arithmetic, this can be done using either
Date::Manip or Date::Calc, without converting to Julian Day first.
There is too much confusion on this issue to cover in this FAQ, but the
term is applied (correctly) to a calendar now supplanted by the Gregorian
Calendar, with the Julian Calendar failing to adjust properly for leap
years on centennial years (among other annoyances). The term is also used
(incorrectly) to mean: [1] days in the Gregorian Calendar; and [2] days
since a particular starting time or `epoch', usually 1970 in the Unix world
and 1980 in the MS-DOS/Windows world. If you find that it is not the first
meaning that you really want, then check out the Date::Manip and Date::Calc
modules. (Thanks to David Cassell for most of this text.)
How do I find yesterday's date?
The "time()" function returns the current time in seconds since the epoch.
Take twenty-four hours off that:
$yesterday = time() - ( 24 * 60 * 60 );
Then you can pass this to "localtime()" and get the individual year, month,
day, hour, minute, seconds values.
Note very carefully that the code above assumes that your days are twenty-
four hours each. For most people, there are two days a year when they
aren't: the switch to and from summer time throws this off. A solution to
this issue is offered by Russ Allbery.
sub yesterday {
my $now = defined $_[0] ? $_[0] : time;
my $then = $now - 60 * 60 * 24;
my $ndst = (localtime $now)[8] > 0;
my $tdst = (localtime $then)[8] > 0;
$then - ($tdst - $ndst) * 60 * 60;
}
# Should give you "this time yesterday" in seconds since epoch relative to
# the first argument or the current time if no argument is given and
# suitable for passing to localtime or whatever else you need to do with
# it. $ndst is whether we're currently in daylight savings time; $tdst is
# whether the point 24 hours ago was in daylight savings time. If $tdst
# and $ndst are the same, a boundary wasn't crossed, and the correction
# will subtract 0. If $tdst is 1 and $ndst is 0, subtract an hour more
# from yesterday's time since we gained an extra hour while going off
# daylight savings time. If $tdst is 0 and $ndst is 1, subtract a
# negative hour (add an hour) to yesterday's time since we lost an hour.
#
# All of this is because during those days when one switches off or onto
# DST, a "day" isn't 24 hours long; it's either 23 or 25.
#
# The explicit settings of $ndst and $tdst are necessary because localtime
# only says it returns the system tm struct, and the system tm struct at
# least on Solaris doesn't guarantee any particular positive value (like,
# say, 1) for isdst, just a positive value. And that value can
# potentially be negative, if DST information isn't available (this sub
# just treats those cases like no DST).
#
# Note that between 2am and 3am on the day after the time zone switches
# off daylight savings time, the exact hour of "yesterday" corresponding
# to the current hour is not clearly defined. Note also that if used
# between 2am and 3am the day after the change to daylight savings time,
# the result will be between 3am and 4am of the previous day; it's
# arguable whether this is correct.
#
# This sub does not attempt to deal with leap seconds (most things don't).
#
# Copyright relinquished 1999 by Russ Allbery <rra@stanford.edu>
# This code is in the public domain
Does Perl have a Year 2000 problem? Is Perl Y2K compliant?
Short answer: No, Perl does not have a Year 2000 problem. Yes, Perl is Y2K
compliant (whatever that means). The programmers you've hired to use it,
however, probably are not.
Long answer: The question belies a true understanding of the issue. Perl
is just as Y2K compliant as your pencil--no more, and no less. Can you use
your pencil to write a non-Y2K-compliant memo? Of course you can. Is that
the pencil's fault? Of course it isn't.
The date and time functions supplied with Perl (gmtime and localtime)
supply adequate information to determine the year well beyond 2000 (2038 is
when trouble strikes for 32-bit machines). The year returned by these
functions when used in a list context is the year minus 1900. For years
between 1910 and 1999 this happens to be a 2-digit decimal number. To avoid
the year 2000 problem simply do not treat the year as a 2-digit number. It
isn't.
When gmtime() and localtime() are used in scalar context they return a
timestamp string that contains a fully-expanded year. For example,
"$timestamp = gmtime(1005613200)" sets $timestamp to "Tue Nov 13 01:00:00
2001". There's no year 2000 problem here.
That doesn't mean that Perl can't be used to create non-Y2K compliant
programs. It can. But so can your pencil. It's the fault of the user,
not the language. At the risk of inflaming the NRA: ``Perl doesn't break
Y2K, people do.'' See http://language.perl.com/news/y2k.html for a longer
exposition.
Data: Strings
How do I validate input?
The answer to this question is usually a regular expression, perhaps with
auxiliary logic. See the more specific questions (numbers, mail addresses,
etc.) for details.
How do I unescape a string?
It depends just what you mean by ``escape''. URL escapes are dealt with in
the perlfaq9 manpage. Shell escapes with the backslash ("\") character are
removed with
s/\\(.)/$1/g;
This won't expand ""\n"" or ""\t"" or any other special escapes.
How do I remove consecutive pairs of characters?
To turn ""abbcccd"" into ""abccd"":
s/(.)\1/$1/g; # add /s to include newlines
Here's a solution that turns "abbcccd" to "abcd":
y///cs; # y == tr, but shorter :-)
How do I expand function calls in a string?
This is documented in the perlref manpage. In general, this is fraught
with quoting and readability problems, but it is possible. To interpolate
a subroutine call (in list context) into a string:
print "My sub returned @{[mysub(1,2,3)]} that time.\n";
If you prefer scalar context, similar chicanery is also useful for
arbitrary expressions:
print "That yields ${\($n + 5)} widgets\n";
Version 5.004 of Perl had a bug that gave list context to the expression in
"${...}", but this is fixed in version 5.005.
See also ``How can I expand variables in text strings?'' in this section of
the FAQ.
How do I find matching/nesting anything?
This isn't something that can be done in one regular expression, no matter
how complicated. To find something between two single characters, a
pattern like "/x([^x]*)x/" will get the intervening bits in $1. For
multiple ones, then something more like "/alpha(.*?)omega/" would be
needed. But none of these deals with nested patterns, nor can they. For
that you'll have to write a parser.
If you are serious about writing a parser, there are a number of modules or
oddities that will make your life a lot easier. There are the CPAN modules
Parse::RecDescent, Parse::Yapp, and Text::Balanced; and the byacc program.
One simple destructive, inside-out approach that you might try is to pull
out the smallest nesting parts one at a time:
while (s/BEGIN((?:(?!BEGIN)(?!END).)*)END//gs) {
# do something with $1
}
A more complicated and sneaky approach is to make Perl's regular expression
engine do it for you. This is courtesy Dean Inada, and rather has the
nature of an Obfuscated Perl Contest entry, but it really does work:
# $_ contains the string to parse
# BEGIN and END are the opening and closing markers for the
# nested text.
@( = ('(','');
@) = (')','');
($re=$_)=~s/((BEGIN)|(END)|.)/$)[!$3]\Q$1\E$([!$2]/gs;
@$ = (eval{/$re/},$@!~/unmatched/);
print join("\n",@$[0..$#$]) if( $$[-1] );
How do I reverse a string?
Use reverse() in scalar context, as documented in the reverse entry in the
perlfunc manpage.
$reversed = reverse $string;
How do I expand tabs in a string?
You can do it yourself:
1 while $string =~ s/\t+/' ' x (length($&) * 8 - length($`) % 8)/e;
Or you can just use the Text::Tabs module (part of the standard Perl
distribution).
use Text::Tabs;
@expanded_lines = expand(@lines_with_tabs);
How do I reformat a paragraph?
Use Text::Wrap (part of the standard Perl distribution):
use Text::Wrap;
print wrap("\t", ' ', @paragraphs);
The paragraphs you give to Text::Wrap should not contain embedded newlines.
Text::Wrap doesn't justify the lines (flush-right).
How can I access/change the first N letters of a string?
There are many ways. If you just want to grab a copy, use substr():
$first_byte = substr($a, 0, 1);
If you want to modify part of a string, the simplest way is often to use
substr() as an lvalue:
substr($a, 0, 3) = "Tom";
Although those with a pattern matching kind of thought process will likely
prefer
$a =~ s/^.../Tom/;
How do I change the Nth occurrence of something?
You have to keep track of N yourself. For example, let's say you want to
change the fifth occurrence of ""whoever"" or ""whomever"" into
""whosoever"" or ""whomsoever"", case insensitively. These all assume that
$_ contains the string to be altered.
$count = 0;
s{((whom?)ever)}{
++$count == 5 # is it the 5th?
? "${2}soever" # yes, swap
: $1 # renege and leave it there
}ige;
In the more general case, you can use the "/g" modifier in a "while" loop,
keeping count of matches.
$WANT = 3;
$count = 0;
$_ = "One fish two fish red fish blue fish";
while (/(\w+)\s+fish\b/gi) {
if (++$count == $WANT) {
print "The third fish is a $1 one.\n";
}
}
That prints out: ""The third fish is a red one."" You can also use a
repetition count and repeated pattern like this:
/(?:\w+\s+fish\s+){2}(\w+)\s+fish/i;
How can I count the number of occurrences of a substring within a string?
There are a number of ways, with varying efficiency. If you want a count
of a certain single character (X) within a string, you can use the "tr///"
function like so:
$string = "ThisXlineXhasXsomeXx'sXinXit";
$count = ($string =~ tr/X//);
print "There are $count X characters in the string";
This is fine if you are just looking for a single character. However, if
you are trying to count multiple character substrings within a larger
string, "tr///" won't work. What you can do is wrap a while() loop around
a global pattern match. For example, let's count negative integers:
$string = "-9 55 48 -2 23 -76 4 14 -44";
while ($string =~ /-\d+/g) { $count++ }
print "There are $count negative numbers in the string";
How do I capitalize all the words on one line?
To make the first letter of each word upper case:
$line =~ s/\b(\w)/\U$1/g;
This has the strange effect of turning ""don't do it"" into ""Don'T Do
It"". Sometimes you might want this. Other times you might need a more
thorough solution (Suggested by brian d. foy):
$string =~ s/ (
(^\w) #at the beginning of the line
| # or
(\s\w) #preceded by whitespace
)
/\U$1/xg;
$string =~ /([\w']+)/\u\L$1/g;
To make the whole line upper case:
$line = uc($line);
To force each word to be lower case, with the first letter upper case:
$line =~ s/(\w+)/\u\L$1/g;
You can (and probably should) enable locale awareness of those characters
by placing a "use locale" pragma in your program. See the perllocale
manpage for endless details on locales.
This is sometimes referred to as putting something into "title case", but
that's not quite accurate. Consider the proper capitalization of the movie
Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb, for
example.
How can I split a [character] delimited string except when inside
[character]? (Comma-separated files)
Take the example case of trying to split a string that is comma-separated
into its different fields. (We'll pretend you said comma-separated, not
comma-delimited, which is different and almost never what you mean.) You
can't use "split(/,/)" because you shouldn't split if the comma is inside
quotes. For example, take a data line like this:
SAR001,"","Cimetrix, Inc","Bob Smith","CAM",N,8,1,0,7,"Error, Core Dumped"
Due to the restriction of the quotes, this is a fairly complex problem.
Thankfully, we have Jeffrey Friedl, author of a highly recommended book on
regular expressions, to handle these for us. He suggests (assuming your
string is contained in $text):
@new = ();
push(@new, $+) while $text =~ m{
"([^\"\\]*(?:\\.[^\"\\]*)*)",? # groups the phrase inside the quotes
| ([^,]+),?
| ,
}gx;
push(@new, undef) if substr($text,-1,1) eq ',';
If you want to represent quotation marks inside a quotation-mark-delimited
field, escape them with backslashes (eg, ""like \"this\""". Unescaping
them is a task addressed earlier in this section.
Alternatively, the Text::ParseWords module (part of the standard Perl
distribution) lets you say:
use Text::ParseWords;
@new = quotewords(",", 0, $text);
There's also a Text::CSV (Comma-Separated Values) module on CPAN.
How do I strip blank space from the beginning/end of a string?
Although the simplest approach would seem to be
$string =~ s/^\s*(.*?)\s*$/$1/;
not only is this unnecessarily slow and destructive, it also fails with
embedded newlines. It is much faster to do this operation in two steps:
$string =~ s/^\s+//;
$string =~ s/\s+$//;
Or more nicely written as:
for ($string) {
s/^\s+//;
s/\s+$//;
}
This idiom takes advantage of the "foreach" loop's aliasing behavior to
factor out common code. You can do this on several strings at once, or
arrays, or even the values of a hash if you use a slice:
# trim whitespace in the scalar, the array,
# and all the values in the hash
foreach ($scalar, @array, @hash{keys %hash}) {
s/^\s+//;
s/\s+$//;
}
How do I pad a string with blanks or pad a number with zeroes?
(This answer contributed by Uri Guttman, with kibitzing from Bart Lateur.)
In the following examples, "$pad_len" is the length to which you wish to
pad the string, "$text" or "$num" contains the string to be padded, and
"$pad_char" contains the padding character. You can use a single character
string constant instead of the "$pad_char" variable if you know what it is
in advance. And in the same way you can use an integer in place of
"$pad_len" if you know the pad length in advance.
The simplest method uses the "sprintf" function. It can pad on the left or
right with blanks and on the left with zeroes and it will not truncate the
result. The "pack" function can only pad strings on the right with blanks
and it will truncate the result to a maximum length of "$pad_len".
# Left padding a string with blanks (no truncation):
$padded = sprintf("%${pad_len}s", $text);
# Right padding a string with blanks (no truncation):
$padded = sprintf("%-${pad_len}s", $text);
# Left padding a number with 0 (no truncation):
$padded = sprintf("%0${pad_len}d", $num);
# Right padding a string with blanks using pack (will truncate):
$padded = pack("A$pad_len",$text);
If you need to pad with a character other than blank or zero you can use
one of the following methods. They all generate a pad string with the "x"
operator and combine that with "$text". These methods do not truncate
"$text".
Left and right padding with any character, creating a new string:
$padded = $pad_char x ( $pad_len - length( $text ) ) . $text;
$padded = $text . $pad_char x ( $pad_len - length( $text ) );
Left and right padding with any character, modifying "$text" directly:
substr( $text, 0, 0 ) = $pad_char x ( $pad_len - length( $text ) );
$text .= $pad_char x ( $pad_len - length( $text ) );
How do I extract selected columns from a string?
Use substr() or unpack(), both documented in the perlfunc manpage. If you
prefer thinking in terms of columns instead of widths, you can use this
kind of thing:
# determine the unpack format needed to split Linux ps output
# arguments are cut columns
my $fmt = cut2fmt(8, 14, 20, 26, 30, 34, 41, 47, 59, 63, 67, 72);
sub cut2fmt {
my(@positions) = @_;
my $template = '';
my $lastpos = 1;
for my $place (@positions) {
$template .= "A" . ($place - $lastpos) . " ";
$lastpos = $place;
}
$template .= "A*";
return $template;
}
How do I find the soundex value of a string?
Use the standard Text::Soundex module distributed with Perl. Before you do
so, you may want to determine whether `soundex' is in fact what you think
it is. Knuth's soundex algorithm compresses words into a small space, and
so it does not necessarily distinguish between two words which you might
want to appear separately. For example, the last names `Knuth' and `Kant'
are both mapped to the soundex code K530. If Text::Soundex does not do
what you are looking for, you might want to consider the String::Approx
module available at CPAN.
How can I expand variables in text strings?
Let's assume that you have a string like:
$text = 'this has a $foo in it and a $bar';
If those were both global variables, then this would suffice:
$text =~ s/\$(\w+)/${$1}/g; # no /e needed
But since they are probably lexicals, or at least, they could be, you'd
have to do this:
$text =~ s/(\$\w+)/$1/eeg;
die if $@; # needed /ee, not /e
It's probably better in the general case to treat those variables as
entries in some special hash. For example:
%user_defs = (
foo => 23,
bar => 19,
);
$text =~ s/\$(\w+)/$user_defs{$1}/g;
See also ``How do I expand function calls in a string?'' in this section of
the FAQ.
What's wrong with always quoting "$vars"?
The problem is that those double-quotes force stringification-- coercing
numbers and references into strings--even when you don't want them to be
strings. Think of it this way: double-quote expansion is used to produce
new strings. If you already have a string, why do you need more?
If you get used to writing odd things like these:
print "$var"; # BAD
$new = "$old"; # BAD
somefunc("$var"); # BAD
You'll be in trouble. Those should (in 99.8% of the cases) be the simpler
and more direct:
print $var;
$new = $old;
somefunc($var);
Otherwise, besides slowing you down, you're going to break code when the
thing in the scalar is actually neither a string nor a number, but a
reference:
func(\@array);
sub func {
my $aref = shift;
my $oref = "$aref"; # WRONG
}
You can also get into subtle problems on those few operations in Perl that
actually do care about the difference between a string and a number, such
as the magical "++" autoincrement operator or the syscall() function.
Stringification also destroys arrays.
@lines = `command`;
print "@lines"; # WRONG - extra blanks
print @lines; # right
Why don't my <<HERE documents work?
Check for these three things:
1. There must be no space after the << part.
2. There (probably) should be a semicolon at the end.
3. You can't (easily) have any space in front of the tag.
If you want to indent the text in the here document, you can do this:
# all in one
($VAR = <<HERE_TARGET) =~ s/^\s+//gm;
your text
goes here
HERE_TARGET
But the HERE_TARGET must still be flush against the margin. If you want
that indented also, you'll have to quote in the indentation.
($quote = <<' FINIS') =~ s/^\s+//gm;
...we will have peace, when you and all your works have
perished--and the works of your dark master to whom you
would deliver us. You are a liar, Saruman, and a corrupter
of men's hearts. --Theoden in /usr/src/perl/taint.c
FINIS
$quote =~ s/\s*--/\n--/;
A nice general-purpose fixer-upper function for indented here documents
follows. It expects to be called with a here document as its argument. It
looks to see whether each line begins with a common substring, and if so,
strips that substring off. Otherwise, it takes the amount of leading
whitespace found on the first line and removes that much off each
subsequent line.
sub fix {
local $_ = shift;
my ($white, $leader); # common whitespace and common leading string
if (/^\s*(?:([^\w\s]+)(\s*).*\n)(?:\s*\1\2?.*\n)+$/) {
($white, $leader) = ($2, quotemeta($1));
} else {
($white, $leader) = (/^(\s+)/, '');
}
s/^\s*?$leader(?:$white)?//gm;
return $_;
}
This works with leading special strings, dynamically determined:
$remember_the_main = fix<<' MAIN_INTERPRETER_LOOP';
@@@ int
@@@ runops() {
@@@ SAVEI32(runlevel);
@@@ runlevel++;
@@@ while ( op = (*op->op_ppaddr)() );
@@@ TAINT_NOT;
@@@ return 0;
@@@ }
MAIN_INTERPRETER_LOOP
Or with a fixed amount of leading whitespace, with remaining indentation
correctly preserved:
$poem = fix<<EVER_ON_AND_ON;
Now far ahead the Road has gone,
And I must follow, if I can,
Pursuing it with eager feet,
Until it joins some larger way
Where many paths and errands meet.
And whither then? I cannot say.
--Bilbo in /usr/src/perl/pp_ctl.c
EVER_ON_AND_ON
Data: Arrays
What is the difference between a list and an array?
An array has a changeable length. A list does not. An array is something
you can push or pop, while a list is a set of values. Some people make the
distinction that a list is a value while an array is a variable.
Subroutines are passed and return lists, you put things into list context,
you initialize arrays with lists, and you foreach() across a list. "@"
variables are arrays, anonymous arrays are arrays, arrays in scalar context
behave like the number of elements in them, subroutines access their
arguments through the array "@_", and push/pop/shift only work on arrays.
As a side note, there's no such thing as a list in scalar context. When
you say
$scalar = (2, 5, 7, 9);
you're using the comma operator in scalar context, so it uses the scalar
comma operator. There never was a list there at all! This causes the last
value to be returned: 9.
What is the difference between $array[1] and @array[1]?
The former is a scalar value; the latter an array slice, making it a list
with one (scalar) value. You should use $ when you want a scalar value
(most of the time) and @ when you want a list with one scalar value in it
(very, very rarely; nearly never, in fact).
Sometimes it doesn't make a difference, but sometimes it does. For
example, compare:
$good[0] = `some program that outputs several lines`;
with
@bad[0] = `same program that outputs several lines`;
The "use warnings" pragma and the -w flag will warn you about these
matters.
How can I remove duplicate elements from a list or array?
There are several possible ways, depending on whether the array is ordered
and whether you wish to preserve the ordering.
a) If @in is sorted, and you want @out to be sorted: (this assumes all
true values in the array)
$prev = "not equal to $in[0]";
@out = grep($_ ne $prev && ($prev = $_, 1), @in);
This is nice in that it doesn't use much extra memory, simulating
uniq(1)'s behavior of removing only adjacent duplicates. The ", 1"
guarantees that the expression is true (so that grep picks it up) even
if the $_ is 0, "", or undef.
b) If you don't know whether @in is sorted:
undef %saw;
@out = grep(!$saw{$_}++, @in);
c) Like (b), but @in contains only small integers:
@out = grep(!$saw[$_]++, @in);
d) A way to do (b) without any loops or greps:
undef %saw;
@saw{@in} = ();
@out = sort keys %saw; # remove sort if undesired
e) Like (d), but @in contains only small positive integers:
undef @ary;
@ary[@in] = @in;
@out = grep {defined} @ary;
But perhaps you should have been using a hash all along, eh?
How can I tell whether a list or array contains a certain element?
Hearing the word "in" is an indication that you probably should have used a
hash, not a list or array, to store your data. Hashes are designed to
answer this question quickly and efficiently. Arrays aren't.
That being said, there are several ways to approach this. If you are going
to make this query many times over arbitrary string values, the fastest way
is probably to invert the original array and keep an associative array
lying about whose keys are the first array's values.
@blues = qw/azure cerulean teal turquoise lapis-lazuli/;
undef %is_blue;
for (@blues) { $is_blue{$_} = 1 }
Now you can check whether $is_blue{$some_color}. It might have been a good
idea to keep the blues all in a hash in the first place.
If the values are all small integers, you could use a simple indexed array.
This kind of an array will take up less space:
@primes = (2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31);
undef @is_tiny_prime;
for (@primes) { $is_tiny_prime[$_] = 1 }
# or simply @istiny_prime[@primes] = (1) x @primes;
Now you check whether $is_tiny_prime[$some_number].
If the values in question are integers instead of strings, you can save
quite a lot of space by using bit strings instead:
@articles = ( 1..10, 150..2000, 2017 );
undef $read;
for (@articles) { vec($read,$_,1) = 1 }
Now check whether "vec($read,$n,1)" is true for some "$n".
Please do not use
($is_there) = grep $_ eq $whatever, @array;
or worse yet
($is_there) = grep /$whatever/, @array;
These are slow (checks every element even if the first matches),
inefficient (same reason), and potentially buggy (what if there are regex
characters in $whatever?). If you're only testing once, then use:
$is_there = 0;
foreach $elt (@array) {
if ($elt eq $elt_to_find) {
$is_there = 1;
last;
}
}
if ($is_there) { ... }
How do I compute the difference of two arrays? How do I compute the
intersection of two arrays?
Use a hash. Here's code to do both and more. It assumes that each element
is unique in a given array:
@union = @intersection = @difference = ();
%count = ();
foreach $element (@array1, @array2) { $count{$element}++ }
foreach $element (keys %count) {
push @union, $element;
push @{ $count{$element} > 1 ? \@intersection : \@difference }, $element;
}
Note that this is the symmetric difference, that is, all elements in either
A or in B but not in both. Think of it as an xor operation.
How do I test whether two arrays or hashes are equal?
The following code works for single-level arrays. It uses a stringwise
comparison, and does not distinguish defined versus undefined empty
strings. Modify if you have other needs.
$are_equal = compare_arrays(\@frogs, \@toads);
sub compare_arrays {
my ($first, $second) = @_;
no warnings; # silence spurious -w undef complaints
return 0 unless @$first == @$second;
for (my $i = 0; $i < @$first; $i++) {
return 0 if $first->[$i] ne $second->[$i];
}
return 1;
}
For multilevel structures, you may wish to use an approach more like this
one. It uses the CPAN module FreezeThaw:
use FreezeThaw qw(cmpStr);
@a = @b = ( "this", "that", [ "more", "stuff" ] );
printf "a and b contain %s arrays\n",
cmpStr(\@a, \@b) == 0
? "the same"
: "different";
This approach also works for comparing hashes. Here we'll demonstrate two
different answers:
use FreezeThaw qw(cmpStr cmpStrHard);
%a = %b = ( "this" => "that", "extra" => [ "more", "stuff" ] );
$a{EXTRA} = \%b;
$b{EXTRA} = \%a;
printf "a and b contain %s hashes\n",
cmpStr(\%a, \%b) == 0 ? "the same" : "different";
printf "a and b contain %s hashes\n",
cmpStrHard(\%a, \%b) == 0 ? "the same" : "different";
The first reports that both those the hashes contain the same data, while
the second reports that they do not. Which you prefer is left as an
exercise to the reader.
How do I find the first array element for which a condition is true?
You can use this if you care about the index:
for ($i= 0; $i < @array; $i++) {
if ($array[$i] eq "Waldo") {
$found_index = $i;
last;
}
}
Now "$found_index" has what you want.
How do I handle linked lists?
In general, you usually don't need a linked list in Perl, since with
regular arrays, you can push and pop or shift and unshift at either end, or
you can use splice to add and/or remove arbitrary number of elements at
arbitrary points. Both pop and shift are both O(1) operations on Perl's
dynamic arrays. In the absence of shifts and pops, push in general needs
to reallocate on the order every log(N) times, and unshift will need to
copy pointers each time.
If you really, really wanted, you could use structures as described in the
perldsc manpage or the perltoot manpage and do just what the algorithm book
tells you to do. For example, imagine a list node like this:
$node = {
VALUE => 42,
LINK => undef,
};
You could walk the list this way:
print "List: ";
for ($node = $head; $node; $node = $node->{LINK}) {
print $node->{VALUE}, " ";
}
print "\n";
You could add to the list this way:
my ($head, $tail);
$tail = append($head, 1); # grow a new head
for $value ( 2 .. 10 ) {
$tail = append($tail, $value);
}
sub append {
my($list, $value) = @_;
my $node = { VALUE => $value };
if ($list) {
$node->{LINK} = $list->{LINK};
$list->{LINK} = $node;
} else {
$_[0] = $node; # replace caller's version
}
return $node;
}
But again, Perl's built-in are virtually always good enough.
How do I handle circular lists?
Circular lists could be handled in the traditional fashion with linked
lists, or you could just do something like this with an array:
unshift(@array, pop(@array)); # the last shall be first
push(@array, shift(@array)); # and vice versa
How do I shuffle an array randomly?
Use this:
# fisher_yates_shuffle( \@array ) :
# generate a random permutation of @array in place
sub fisher_yates_shuffle {
my $array = shift;
my $i;
for ($i = @$array; --$i; ) {
my $j = int rand ($i+1);
@$array[$i,$j] = @$array[$j,$i];
}
}
fisher_yates_shuffle( \@array ); # permutes @array in place
You've probably seen shuffling algorithms that work using splice, randomly
picking another element to swap the current element with
srand;
@new = ();
@old = 1 .. 10; # just a demo
while (@old) {
push(@new, splice(@old, rand @old, 1));
}
This is bad because splice is already O(N), and since you do it N times,
you just invented a quadratic algorithm; that is, O(N**2). This does not
scale, although Perl is so efficient that you probably won't notice this
until you have rather largish arrays.
How do I process/modify each element of an array?
Use "for"/"foreach":
for (@lines) {
s/foo/bar/; # change that word
y/XZ/ZX/; # swap those letters
}
Here's another; let's compute spherical volumes:
for (@volumes = @radii) { # @volumes has changed parts
$_ **= 3;
$_ *= (4/3) * 3.14159; # this will be constant folded
}
If you want to do the same thing to modify the values of the hash, you may
not use the "values" function, oddly enough. You need a slice:
for $orbit ( @orbits{keys %orbits} ) {
($orbit **= 3) *= (4/3) * 3.14159;
}
How do I select a random element from an array?
Use the rand() function (see the rand entry in the perlfunc manpage):
# at the top of the program:
srand; # not needed for 5.004 and later
# then later on
$index = rand @array;
$element = $array[$index];
Make sure you only call srand once per program, if then. If you are
calling it more than once (such as before each call to rand), you're almost
certainly doing something wrong.
How do I permute N elements of a list?
Here's a little program that generates all permutations of all the words on
each line of input. The algorithm embodied in the permute() function
should work on any list:
#!/usr/bin/perl -n
# tsc-permute: permute each word of input
permute([split], []);
sub permute {
my @items = @{ $_[0] };
my @perms = @{ $_[1] };
unless (@items) {
print "@perms\n";
} else {
my(@newitems,@newperms,$i);
foreach $i (0 .. $#items) {
@newitems = @items;
@newperms = @perms;
unshift(@newperms, splice(@newitems, $i, 1));
permute([@newitems], [@newperms]);
}
}
}
How do I sort an array by (anything)?
Supply a comparison function to sort() (described in the sort entry in the
perlfunc manpage):
@list = sort { $a <=> $b } @list;
The default sort function is cmp, string comparison, which would sort "(1,
2, 10)" into "(1, 10, 2)". "<=>", used above, is the numerical comparison
operator.
If you have a complicated function needed to pull out the part you want to
sort on, then don't do it inside the sort function. Pull it out first,
because the sort BLOCK can be called many times for the same element.
Here's an example of how to pull out the first word after the first number
on each item, and then sort those words case-insensitively.
@idx = ();
for (@data) {
($item) = /\d+\s*(\S+)/;
push @idx, uc($item);
}
@sorted = @data[ sort { $idx[$a] cmp $idx[$b] } 0 .. $#idx ];
which could also be written this way, using a trick that's come to be known
as the Schwartzian Transform:
@sorted = map { $_->[0] }
sort { $a->[1] cmp $b->[1] }
map { [ $_, uc( (/\d+\s*(\S+)/)[0]) ] } @data;
If you need to sort on several fields, the following paradigm is useful.
@sorted = sort { field1($a) <=> field1($b) ||
field2($a) cmp field2($b) ||
field3($a) cmp field3($b)
} @data;
This can be conveniently combined with precalculation of keys as given
above.
See http://www.perl.com/CPAN/doc/FMTEYEWTK/sort.html for more about this
approach.
See also the question below on sorting hashes.
How do I manipulate arrays of bits?
Use pack() and unpack(), or else vec() and the bitwise operations.
For example, this sets $vec to have bit N set if $ints[N] was set:
$vec = '';
foreach(@ints) { vec($vec,$_,1) = 1 }
And here's how, given a vector in $vec, you can get those bits into your
@ints array:
sub bitvec_to_list {
my $vec = shift;
my @ints;
# Find null-byte density then select best algorithm
if ($vec =~ tr/\0// / length $vec > 0.95) {
use integer;
my $i;
# This method is faster with mostly null-bytes
while($vec =~ /[^\0]/g ) {
$i = -9 + 8 * pos $vec;
push @ints, $i if vec($vec, ++$i, 1);
push @ints, $i if vec($vec, ++$i, 1);
push @ints, $i if vec($vec, ++$i, 1);
push @ints, $i if vec($vec, ++$i, 1);
push @ints, $i if vec($vec, ++$i, 1);
push @ints, $i if vec($vec, ++$i, 1);
push @ints, $i if vec($vec, ++$i, 1);
push @ints, $i if vec($vec, ++$i, 1);
}
} else {
# This method is a fast general algorithm
use integer;
my $bits = unpack "b*", $vec;
push @ints, 0 if $bits =~ s/^(\d)// && $1;
push @ints, pos $bits while($bits =~ /1/g);
}
return \@ints;
}
This method gets faster the more sparse the bit vector is. (Courtesy of
Tim Bunce and Winfried Koenig.)
Here's a demo on how to use vec():
# vec demo
$vector = "\xff\x0f\xef\xfe";
print "Ilya's string \\xff\\x0f\\xef\\xfe represents the number ",
unpack("N", $vector), "\n";
$is_set = vec($vector, 23, 1);
print "Its 23rd bit is ", $is_set ? "set" : "clear", ".\n";
pvec($vector);
set_vec(1,1,1);
set_vec(3,1,1);
set_vec(23,1,1);
set_vec(3,1,3);
set_vec(3,2,3);
set_vec(3,4,3);
set_vec(3,4,7);
set_vec(3,8,3);
set_vec(3,8,7);
set_vec(0,32,17);
set_vec(1,32,17);
sub set_vec {
my ($offset, $width, $value) = @_;
my $vector = '';
vec($vector, $offset, $width) = $value;
print "offset=$offset width=$width value=$value\n";
pvec($vector);
}
sub pvec {
my $vector = shift;
my $bits = unpack("b*", $vector);
my $i = 0;
my $BASE = 8;
print "vector length in bytes: ", length($vector), "\n";
@bytes = unpack("A8" x length($vector), $bits);
print "bits are: @bytes\n\n";
}
Why does defined() return true on empty arrays and hashes?
The short story is that you should probably only use defined on scalars or
functions, not on aggregates (arrays and hashes). See the defined entry in
the perlfunc manpage in the 5.004 release or later of Perl for more detail.
Data: Hashes (Associative Arrays)
How do I process an entire hash?
Use the each() function (see the each entry in the perlfunc manpage) if you
don't care whether it's sorted:
while ( ($key, $value) = each %hash) {
print "$key = $value\n";
}
If you want it sorted, you'll have to use foreach() on the result of
sorting the keys as shown in an earlier question.
What happens if I add or remove keys from a hash while iterating over it?
Don't do that. :-)
[lwall] In Perl 4, you were not allowed to modify a hash at all while
iterating over it. In Perl 5 you can delete from it, but you still can't
add to it, because that might cause a doubling of the hash table, in which
half the entries get copied up to the new top half of the table, at which
point you've totally bamboozled the iterator code. Even if the table
doesn't double, there's no telling whether your new entry will be inserted
before or after the current iterator position.
Either treasure up your changes and make them after the iterator finishes
or use keys to fetch all the old keys at once, and iterate over the list of
keys.
How do I look up a hash element by value?
Create a reverse hash:
%by_value = reverse %by_key;
$key = $by_value{$value};
That's not particularly efficient. It would be more space-efficient to
use:
while (($key, $value) = each %by_key) {
$by_value{$value} = $key;
}
If your hash could have repeated values, the methods above will only find
one of the associated keys. This may or may not worry you. If it does
worry you, you can always reverse the hash into a hash of arrays instead:
while (($key, $value) = each %by_key) {
push @{$key_list_by_value{$value}}, $key;
}
How can I know how many entries are in a hash?
If you mean how many keys, then all you have to do is take the scalar sense
of the keys() function:
$num_keys = scalar keys %hash;
The keys() function also resets the iterator, which in void context is
faster for tied hashes than would be iterating through the whole hash, one
key-value pair at a time.
How do I sort a hash (optionally by value instead of key)?
Internally, hashes are stored in a way that prevents you from imposing an
order on key-value pairs. Instead, you have to sort a list of the keys or
values:
@keys = sort keys %hash; # sorted by key
@keys = sort {
$hash{$a} cmp $hash{$b}
} keys %hash; # and by value
Here we'll do a reverse numeric sort by value, and if two keys are
identical, sort by length of key, or if that fails, by straight ASCII
comparison of the keys (well, possibly modified by your locale--see the
perllocale manpage).
@keys = sort {
$hash{$b} <=> $hash{$a}
||
length($b) <=> length($a)
||
$a cmp $b
} keys %hash;
How can I always keep my hash sorted?
You can look into using the DB_File module and tie() using the $DB_BTREE
hash bindings as documented in the In Memory Databases entry in the DB_File
manpage. The Tie::IxHash module from CPAN might also be instructive.
What's the difference between "delete" and "undef" with hashes?
Hashes are pairs of scalars: the first is the key, the second is the value.
The key will be coerced to a string, although the value can be any kind of
scalar: string, number, or reference. If a key "$key" is present in the
array, "exists($key)" will return true. The value for a given key can be
"undef", in which case "$array{$key}" will be "undef" while "$exists{$key}"
will return true. This corresponds to ("$key", "undef") being in the hash.
Pictures help... here's the "%ary" table:
keys values
+------+------+
| a | 3 |
| x | 7 |
| d | 0 |
| e | 2 |
+------+------+
And these conditions hold
$ary{'a'} is true
$ary{'d'} is false
defined $ary{'d'} is true
defined $ary{'a'} is true
exists $ary{'a'} is true (Perl5 only)
grep ($_ eq 'a', keys %ary) is true
If you now say
undef $ary{'a'}
your table now reads:
keys values
+------+------+
| a | undef|
| x | 7 |
| d | 0 |
| e | 2 |
+------+------+
and these conditions now hold; changes in caps:
$ary{'a'} is FALSE
$ary{'d'} is false
defined $ary{'d'} is true
defined $ary{'a'} is FALSE
exists $ary{'a'} is true (Perl5 only)
grep ($_ eq 'a', keys %ary) is true
Notice the last two: you have an undef value, but a defined key!
Now, consider this:
delete $ary{'a'}
your table now reads:
keys values
+------+------+
| x | 7 |
| d | 0 |
| e | 2 |
+------+------+
and these conditions now hold; changes in caps:
$ary{'a'} is false
$ary{'d'} is false
defined $ary{'d'} is true
defined $ary{'a'} is false
exists $ary{'a'} is FALSE (Perl5 only)
grep ($_ eq 'a', keys %ary) is FALSE
See, the whole entry is gone!
Why don't my tied hashes make the defined/exists distinction?
They may or may not implement the EXISTS() and DEFINED() methods
differently. For example, there isn't the concept of undef with hashes
that are tied to DBM* files. This means the true/false tables above will
give different results when used on such a hash. It also means that exists
and defined do the same thing with a DBM* file, and what they end up doing
is not what they do with ordinary hashes.
How do I reset an each() operation part-way through?
Using "keys %hash" in scalar context returns the number of keys in the hash
and resets the iterator associated with the hash. You may need to do this
if you use "last" to exit a loop early so that when you re-enter it, the
hash iterator has been reset.
How can I get the unique keys from two hashes?
First you extract the keys from the hashes into lists, then solve the
"removing duplicates" problem described above. For example:
%seen = ();
for $element (keys(%foo), keys(%bar)) {
$seen{$element}++;
}
@uniq = keys %seen;
Or more succinctly:
@uniq = keys %{{%foo,%bar}};
Or if you really want to save space:
%seen = ();
while (defined ($key = each %foo)) {
$seen{$key}++;
}
while (defined ($key = each %bar)) {
$seen{$key}++;
}
@uniq = keys %seen;
How can I store a multidimensional array in a DBM file?
Either stringify the structure yourself (no fun), or else get the MLDBM
(which uses Data::Dumper) module from CPAN and layer it on top of either
DB_File or GDBM_File.
How can I make my hash remember the order I put elements into it?
Use the Tie::IxHash from CPAN.
use Tie::IxHash;
tie(%myhash, Tie::IxHash);
for ($i=0; $i<20; $i++) {
$myhash{$i} = 2*$i;
}
@keys = keys %myhash;
# @keys = (0,1,2,3,...)
Why does passing a subroutine an undefined element in a hash create it?
If you say something like:
somefunc($hash{"nonesuch key here"});
Then that element "autovivifies"; that is, it springs into existence
whether you store something there or not. That's because functions get
scalars passed in by reference. If somefunc() modifies "$_[0]", it has to
be ready to write it back into the caller's version.
This has been fixed as of Perl5.004.
Normally, merely accessing a key's value for a nonexistent key does not
cause that key to be forever there. This is different than awk's behavior.
How can I make the Perl equivalent of a C structure/C++ class/hash or array
of hashes or arrays?
Usually a hash ref, perhaps like this:
$record = {
NAME => "Jason",
EMPNO => 132,
TITLE => "deputy peon",
AGE => 23,
SALARY => 37_000,
PALS => [ "Norbert", "Rhys", "Phineas"],
};
References are documented in the perlref manpage and the upcoming the
perlreftut manpage. Examples of complex data structures are given in the
perldsc manpage and the perllol manpage. Examples of structures and
object-oriented classes are in the perltoot manpage.
How can I use a reference as a hash key?
You can't do this directly, but you could use the standard Tie::Refhash
module distributed with Perl.
Data: Misc
How do I handle binary data correctly?
Perl is binary clean, so this shouldn't be a problem. For example, this
works fine (assuming the files are found):
if (`cat /vmunix` =~ /gzip/) {
print "Your kernel is GNU-zip enabled!\n";
}
On less elegant (read: Byzantine) systems, however, you have to play
tedious games with "text" versus "binary" files. See the binmode entry in
the perlfunc manpage or the perlopentut manpage. Most of these ancient-
thinking systems are curses out of Microsoft, who seem to be committed to
putting the backward into backward compatibility.
If you're concerned about 8-bit ASCII data, then see the perllocale
manpage.
If you want to deal with multibyte characters, however, there are some
gotchas. See the section on Regular Expressions.
How do I determine whether a scalar is a number/whole/integer/float?
Assuming that you don't care about IEEE notations like "NaN" or "Infinity",
you probably just want to use a regular expression.
if (/\D/) { print "has nondigits\n" }
if (/^\d+$/) { print "is a whole number\n" }
if (/^-?\d+$/) { print "is an integer\n" }
if (/^[+-]?\d+$/) { print "is a +/- integer\n" }
if (/^-?\d+\.?\d*$/) { print "is a real number\n" }
if (/^-?(?:\d+(?:\.\d*)?|\.\d+)$/) { print "is a decimal number" }
if (/^([+-]?)(?=\d|\.\d)\d*(\.\d*)?([Ee]([+-]?\d+))?$/)
{ print "a C float" }
If you're on a POSIX system, Perl's supports the "POSIX::strtod" function.
Its semantics are somewhat cumbersome, so here's a "getnum" wrapper
function for more convenient access. This function takes a string and
returns the number it found, or "undef" for input that isn't a C float.
The "is_numeric" function is a front end to "getnum" if you just want to
say, ``Is this a float?''
sub getnum {
use POSIX qw(strtod);
my $str = shift;
$str =~ s/^\s+//;
$str =~ s/\s+$//;
$! = 0;
my($num, $unparsed) = strtod($str);
if (($str eq '') || ($unparsed != 0) || $!) {
return undef;
} else {
return $num;
}
}
sub is_numeric { defined getnum($_[0]) }
Or you could check out the String::Scanf module on CPAN instead. The POSIX
module (part of the standard Perl distribution) provides the "strtod" and
"strtol" for converting strings to double and longs, respectively.
How do I keep persistent data across program calls?
For some specific applications, you can use one of the DBM modules. See
the AnyDBM_File manpage. More generically, you should consult the
FreezeThaw, Storable, or Class::Eroot modules from CPAN. Here's one
example using Storable's "store" and "retrieve" functions:
use Storable;
store(\%hash, "filename");
# later on...
$href = retrieve("filename"); # by ref
%hash = %{ retrieve("filename") }; # direct to hash
How do I print out or copy a recursive data structure?
The Data::Dumper module on CPAN (or the 5.005 release of Perl) is great for
printing out data structures. The Storable module, found on CPAN, provides
a function called "dclone" that recursively copies its argument.
use Storable qw(dclone);
$r2 = dclone($r1);
Where $r1 can be a reference to any kind of data structure you'd like. It
will be deeply copied. Because "dclone" takes and returns references,
you'd have to add extra punctuation if you had a hash of arrays that you
wanted to copy.
%newhash = %{ dclone(\%oldhash) };
How do I define methods for every class/object?
Use the UNIVERSAL class (see the UNIVERSAL manpage).
How do I verify a credit card checksum?
Get the Business::CreditCard module from CPAN.
How do I pack arrays of doubles or floats for XS code?
The kgbpack.c code in the PGPLOT module on CPAN does just this. If you're
doing a lot of float or double processing, consider using the PDL module
from CPAN instead--it makes number-crunching easy.
AUTHOR AND COPYRIGHT
Copyright (c) 1997-1999 Tom Christiansen and Nathan Torkington. All rights
reserved.
When included as part of the Standard Version of Perl, or as part of its
complete documentation whether printed or otherwise, this work may be
distributed only under the terms of Perl's Artistic License. Any
distribution of this file or derivatives thereof outside of that package
require that special arrangements be made with copyright holder.
Irrespective of its distribution, all code examples in this file are hereby
placed into the public domain. You are permitted and encouraged to use
this code in your own programs for fun or for profit as you see fit. A
simple comment in the code giving credit would be courteous but is not
required.
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