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PERLDSC(1)
NAME
perldsc - Perl Data Structures Cookbook
DESCRIPTION
The single feature most sorely lacking in the Perl programming language
prior to its 5.0 release was complex data structures. Even without direct
language support, some valiant programmers did manage to emulate them, but
it was hard work and not for the faint of heart. You could occasionally
get away with the "$m{$AoA,$b}" notation borrowed from awk in which the
keys are actually more like a single concatenated string ""$AoA$b"", but
traversal and sorting were difficult. More desperate programmers even
hacked Perl's internal symbol table directly, a strategy that proved hard
to develop and maintain--to put it mildly.
The 5.0 release of Perl let us have complex data structures. You may now
write something like this and all of a sudden, you'd have a array with
three dimensions!
for $x (1 .. 10) {
for $y (1 .. 10) {
for $z (1 .. 10) {
$AoA[$x][$y][$z] =
$x ** $y + $z;
}
}
}
Alas, however simple this may appear, underneath it's a much more elaborate
construct than meets the eye!
How do you print it out? Why can't you say just "print @AoA"? How do you
sort it? How can you pass it to a function or get one of these back from a
function? Is is an object? Can you save it to disk to read back later?
How do you access whole rows or columns of that matrix? Do all the values
have to be numeric?
As you see, it's quite easy to become confused. While some small portion
of the blame for this can be attributed to the reference-based
implementation, it's really more due to a lack of existing documentation
with examples designed for the beginner.
This document is meant to be a detailed but understandable treatment of the
many different sorts of data structures you might want to develop. It
should also serve as a cookbook of examples. That way, when you need to
create one of these complex data structures, you can just pinch, pilfer, or
purloin a drop-in example from here.
Let's look at each of these possible constructs in detail. There are
separate sections on each of the following:
· arrays of arrays
· hashes of arrays
· arrays of hashes
· hashes of hashes
· more elaborate constructs
But for now, let's look at general issues common to all these types of data
structures.
REFERENCES
The most important thing to understand about all data structures in Perl --
including multidimensional arrays--is that even though they might appear
otherwise, Perl "@ARRAY"s and "%HASH"es are all internally one-dimensional.
They can hold only scalar values (meaning a string, number, or a
reference). They cannot directly contain other arrays or hashes, but
instead contain references to other arrays or hashes.
You can't use a reference to a array or hash in quite the same way that you
would a real array or hash. For C or C++ programmers unused to
distinguishing between arrays and pointers to the same, this can be
confusing. If so, just think of it as the difference between a structure
and a pointer to a structure.
You can (and should) read more about references in the perlref(1) man page.
Briefly, references are rather like pointers that know what they point to.
(Objects are also a kind of reference, but we won't be needing them right
away--if ever.) This means that when you have something which looks to you
like an access to a two-or-more-dimensional array and/or hash, what's
really going on is that the base type is merely a one-dimensional entity
that contains references to the next level. It's just that you can use it
as though it were a two-dimensional one. This is actually the way almost
all C multidimensional arrays work as well.
$array[7][12] # array of arrays
$array[7]{string} # array of hashes
$hash{string}[7] # hash of arrays
$hash{string}{'another string'} # hash of hashes
Now, because the top level contains only references, if you try to print
out your array in with a simple print() function, you'll get something that
doesn't look very nice, like this:
@AoA = ( [2, 3], [4, 5, 7], [0] );
print $AoA[1][2];
7
print @AoA;
ARRAY(0x83c38)ARRAY(0x8b194)ARRAY(0x8b1d0)
That's because Perl doesn't (ever) implicitly dereference your variables.
If you want to get at the thing a reference is referring to, then you have
to do this yourself using either prefix typing indicators, like "${$blah}",
"@{$blah}", "@{$blah[$i]}", or else postfix pointer arrows, like "$a->[3]",
"$h->{fred}", or even "$ob->method()->[3]".
COMMON MISTAKES
The two most common mistakes made in constructing something like an array
of arrays is either accidentally counting the number of elements or else
taking a reference to the same memory location repeatedly. Here's the case
where you just get the count instead of a nested array:
for $i (1..10) {
@array = somefunc($i);
$AoA[$i] = @array; # WRONG!
}
That's just the simple case of assigning an array to a scalar and getting
its element count. If that's what you really and truly want, then you
might do well to consider being a tad more explicit about it, like this:
for $i (1..10) {
@array = somefunc($i);
$counts[$i] = scalar @array;
}
Here's the case of taking a reference to the same memory location again and
again:
for $i (1..10) {
@array = somefunc($i);
$AoA[$i] = \@array; # WRONG!
}
So, what's the big problem with that? It looks right, doesn't it? After
all, I just told you that you need an array of references, so by golly,
you've made me one!
Unfortunately, while this is true, it's still broken. All the references
in @AoA refer to the very same place, and they will therefore all hold
whatever was last in @array! It's similar to the problem demonstrated in
the following C program:
#include <pwd.h>
main() {
struct passwd *getpwnam(), *rp, *dp;
rp = getpwnam("root");
dp = getpwnam("daemon");
printf("daemon name is %s\nroot name is %s\n",
dp->pw_name, rp->pw_name);
}
Which will print
daemon name is daemon
root name is daemon
The problem is that both "rp" and "dp" are pointers to the same location in
memory! In C, you'd have to remember to malloc() yourself some new memory.
In Perl, you'll want to use the array constructor "[]" or the hash
constructor "{}" instead. Here's the right way to do the preceding broken
code fragments:
for $i (1..10) {
@array = somefunc($i);
$AoA[$i] = [ @array ];
}
The square brackets make a reference to a new array with a copy of what's
in @array at the time of the assignment. This is what you want.
Note that this will produce something similar, but it's much harder to
read:
for $i (1..10) {
@array = 0 .. $i;
@{$AoA[$i]} = @array;
}
Is it the same? Well, maybe so--and maybe not. The subtle difference is
that when you assign something in square brackets, you know for sure it's
always a brand new reference with a new copy of the data. Something else
could be going on in this new case with the "@{$AoA[$i]}}" dereference on
the left-hand-side of the assignment. It all depends on whether "$AoA[$i]"
had been undefined to start with, or whether it already contained a
reference. If you had already populated @AoA with references, as in
$AoA[3] = \@another_array;
Then the assignment with the indirection on the left-hand-side would use
the existing reference that was already there:
@{$AoA[3]} = @array;
Of course, this would have the "interesting" effect of clobbering
@another_array. (Have you ever noticed how when a programmer says
something is "interesting", that rather than meaning "intriguing", they're
disturbingly more apt to mean that it's "annoying", "difficult", or both?
:-)
So just remember always to use the array or hash constructors with "[]" or
"{}", and you'll be fine, although it's not always optimally efficient.
Surprisingly, the following dangerous-looking construct will actually work
out fine:
for $i (1..10) {
my @array = somefunc($i);
$AoA[$i] = \@array;
}
That's because my() is more of a run-time statement than it is a compile-
time declaration per se. This means that the my() variable is remade
afresh each time through the loop. So even though it looks as though you
stored the same variable reference each time, you actually did not! This
is a subtle distinction that can produce more efficient code at the risk of
misleading all but the most experienced of programmers. So I usually
advise against teaching it to beginners. In fact, except for passing
arguments to functions, I seldom like to see the gimme-a-reference operator
(backslash) used much at all in code. Instead, I advise beginners that
they (and most of the rest of us) should try to use the much more easily
understood constructors "[]" and "{}" instead of relying upon lexical (or
dynamic) scoping and hidden reference-counting to do the right thing behind
the scenes.
In summary:
$AoA[$i] = [ @array ]; # usually best
$AoA[$i] = \@array; # perilous; just how my() was that array?
@{ $AoA[$i] } = @array; # way too tricky for most programmers
CAVEAT ON PRECEDENCE
Speaking of things like "@{$AoA[$i]}", the following are actually the same
thing:
$aref->[2][2] # clear
$$aref[2][2] # confusing
That's because Perl's precedence rules on its five prefix dereferencers
(which look like someone swearing: "$ @ * % &") make them bind more tightly
than the postfix subscripting brackets or braces! This will no doubt come
as a great shock to the C or C++ programmer, who is quite accustomed to
using "*a[i]" to mean what's pointed to by the i'th element of "a". That
is, they first take the subscript, and only then dereference the thing at
that subscript. That's fine in C, but this isn't C.
The seemingly equivalent construct in Perl, "$$aref[$i]" first does the
deref of $aref, making it take $aref as a reference to an array, and then
dereference that, and finally tell you the i'th value of the array pointed
to by $AoA. If you wanted the C notion, you'd have to write "${$AoA[$i]}"
to force the "$AoA[$i]" to get evaluated first before the leading "$"
dereferencer.
WHY YOU SHOULD ALWAYS "use strict"
If this is starting to sound scarier than it's worth, relax. Perl has some
features to help you avoid its most common pitfalls. The best way to avoid
getting confused is to start every program like this:
#!/usr/bin/perl -w
use strict;
This way, you'll be forced to declare all your variables with my() and also
disallow accidental "symbolic dereferencing". Therefore if you'd done
this:
my $aref = [
[ "fred", "barney", "pebbles", "bambam", "dino", ],
[ "homer", "bart", "marge", "maggie", ],
[ "george", "jane", "elroy", "judy", ],
];
print $aref[2][2];
The compiler would immediately flag that as an error at compile time,
because you were accidentally accessing "@aref", an undeclared variable,
and it would thereby remind you to write instead:
print $aref->[2][2]
DEBUGGING
Before version 5.002, the standard Perl debugger didn't do a very nice job
of printing out complex data structures. With 5.002 or above, the debugger
includes several new features, including command line editing as well as
the "x" command to dump out complex data structures. For example, given
the assignment to $AoA above, here's the debugger output:
DB<1> x $AoA
$AoA = ARRAY(0x13b5a0)
0 ARRAY(0x1f0a24)
0 'fred'
1 'barney'
2 'pebbles'
3 'bambam'
4 'dino'
1 ARRAY(0x13b558)
0 'homer'
1 'bart'
2 'marge'
3 'maggie'
2 ARRAY(0x13b540)
0 'george'
1 'jane'
2 'elroy'
3 'judy'
CODE EXAMPLES
Presented with little comment (these will get their own manpages someday)
here are short code examples illustrating access of various types of data
structures.
ARRAYS OF ARRAYS
Declaration of a ARRAY OF ARRAYS
@AoA = (
[ "fred", "barney" ],
[ "george", "jane", "elroy" ],
[ "homer", "marge", "bart" ],
);
Generation of a ARRAY OF ARRAYS
# reading from file
while ( <> ) {
push @AoA, [ split ];
}
# calling a function
for $i ( 1 .. 10 ) {
$AoA[$i] = [ somefunc($i) ];
}
# using temp vars
for $i ( 1 .. 10 ) {
@tmp = somefunc($i);
$AoA[$i] = [ @tmp ];
}
# add to an existing row
push @{ $AoA[0] }, "wilma", "betty";
Access and Printing of a ARRAY OF ARRAYS
# one element
$AoA[0][0] = "Fred";
# another element
$AoA[1][1] =~ s/(\w)/\u$1/;
# print the whole thing with refs
for $aref ( @AoA ) {
print "\t [ @$aref ],\n";
}
# print the whole thing with indices
for $i ( 0 .. $#AoA ) {
print "\t [ @{$AoA[$i]} ],\n";
}
# print the whole thing one at a time
for $i ( 0 .. $#AoA ) {
for $j ( 0 .. $#{ $AoA[$i] } ) {
print "elt $i $j is $AoA[$i][$j]\n";
}
}
HASHES OF ARRAYS
Declaration of a HASH OF ARRAYS
%HoA = (
flintstones => [ "fred", "barney" ],
jetsons => [ "george", "jane", "elroy" ],
simpsons => [ "homer", "marge", "bart" ],
);
Generation of a HASH OF ARRAYS
# reading from file
# flintstones: fred barney wilma dino
while ( <> ) {
next unless s/^(.*?):\s*//;
$HoA{$1} = [ split ];
}
# reading from file; more temps
# flintstones: fred barney wilma dino
while ( $line = <> ) {
($who, $rest) = split /:\s*/, $line, 2;
@fields = split ' ', $rest;
$HoA{$who} = [ @fields ];
}
# calling a function that returns a list
for $group ( "simpsons", "jetsons", "flintstones" ) {
$HoA{$group} = [ get_family($group) ];
}
# likewise, but using temps
for $group ( "simpsons", "jetsons", "flintstones" ) {
@members = get_family($group);
$HoA{$group} = [ @members ];
}
# append new members to an existing family
push @{ $HoA{"flintstones"} }, "wilma", "betty";
Access and Printing of a HASH OF ARRAYS
# one element
$HoA{flintstones}[0] = "Fred";
# another element
$HoA{simpsons}[1] =~ s/(\w)/\u$1/;
# print the whole thing
foreach $family ( keys %HoA ) {
print "$family: @{ $HoA{$family} }\n"
}
# print the whole thing with indices
foreach $family ( keys %HoA ) {
print "family: ";
foreach $i ( 0 .. $#{ $HoA{$family} } ) {
print " $i = $HoA{$family}[$i]";
}
print "\n";
}
# print the whole thing sorted by number of members
foreach $family ( sort { @{$HoA{$b}} <=> @{$HoA{$a}} } keys %HoA ) {
print "$family: @{ $HoA{$family} }\n"
}
# print the whole thing sorted by number of members and name
foreach $family ( sort {
@{$HoA{$b}} <=> @{$HoA{$a}}
||
$a cmp $b
} keys %HoA )
{
print "$family: ", join(", ", sort @{ $HoA{$family} }), "\n";
}
ARRAYS OF HASHES
Declaration of a ARRAY OF HASHES
@AoH = (
{
Lead => "fred",
Friend => "barney",
},
{
Lead => "george",
Wife => "jane",
Son => "elroy",
},
{
Lead => "homer",
Wife => "marge",
Son => "bart",
}
);
Generation of a ARRAY OF HASHES
# reading from file
# format: LEAD=fred FRIEND=barney
while ( <> ) {
$rec = {};
for $field ( split ) {
($key, $value) = split /=/, $field;
$rec->{$key} = $value;
}
push @AoH, $rec;
}
# reading from file
# format: LEAD=fred FRIEND=barney
# no temp
while ( <> ) {
push @AoH, { split /[\s+=]/ };
}
# calling a function that returns a key/value pair list, like
# "lead","fred","daughter","pebbles"
while ( %fields = getnextpairset() ) {
push @AoH, { %fields };
}
# likewise, but using no temp vars
while (<>) {
push @AoH, { parsepairs($_) };
}
# add key/value to an element
$AoH[0]{pet} = "dino";
$AoH[2]{pet} = "santa's little helper";
Access and Printing of a ARRAY OF HASHES
# one element
$AoH[0]{lead} = "fred";
# another element
$AoH[1]{lead} =~ s/(\w)/\u$1/;
# print the whole thing with refs
for $href ( @AoH ) {
print "{ ";
for $role ( keys %$href ) {
print "$role=$href->{$role} ";
}
print "}\n";
}
# print the whole thing with indices
for $i ( 0 .. $#AoH ) {
print "$i is { ";
for $role ( keys %{ $AoH[$i] } ) {
print "$role=$AoH[$i]{$role} ";
}
print "}\n";
}
# print the whole thing one at a time
for $i ( 0 .. $#AoH ) {
for $role ( keys %{ $AoH[$i] } ) {
print "elt $i $role is $AoH[$i]{$role}\n";
}
}
HASHES OF HASHES
Declaration of a HASH OF HASHES
%HoH = (
flintstones => {
lead => "fred",
pal => "barney",
},
jetsons => {
lead => "george",
wife => "jane",
"his boy" => "elroy",
},
simpsons => {
lead => "homer",
wife => "marge",
kid => "bart",
},
);
Generation of a HASH OF HASHES
# reading from file
# flintstones: lead=fred pal=barney wife=wilma pet=dino
while ( <> ) {
next unless s/^(.*?):\s*//;
$who = $1;
for $field ( split ) {
($key, $value) = split /=/, $field;
$HoH{$who}{$key} = $value;
}
# reading from file; more temps
while ( <> ) {
next unless s/^(.*?):\s*//;
$who = $1;
$rec = {};
$HoH{$who} = $rec;
for $field ( split ) {
($key, $value) = split /=/, $field;
$rec->{$key} = $value;
}
}
# calling a function that returns a key,value hash
for $group ( "simpsons", "jetsons", "flintstones" ) {
$HoH{$group} = { get_family($group) };
}
# likewise, but using temps
for $group ( "simpsons", "jetsons", "flintstones" ) {
%members = get_family($group);
$HoH{$group} = { %members };
}
# append new members to an existing family
%new_folks = (
wife => "wilma",
pet => "dino",
);
for $what (keys %new_folks) {
$HoH{flintstones}{$what} = $new_folks{$what};
}
Access and Printing of a HASH OF HASHES
# one element
$HoH{flintstones}{wife} = "wilma";
# another element
$HoH{simpsons}{lead} =~ s/(\w)/\u$1/;
# print the whole thing
foreach $family ( keys %HoH ) {
print "$family: { ";
for $role ( keys %{ $HoH{$family} } ) {
print "$role=$HoH{$family}{$role} ";
}
print "}\n";
}
# print the whole thing somewhat sorted
foreach $family ( sort keys %HoH ) {
print "$family: { ";
for $role ( sort keys %{ $HoH{$family} } ) {
print "$role=$HoH{$family}{$role} ";
}
print "}\n";
}
# print the whole thing sorted by number of members
foreach $family ( sort { keys %{$HoH{$b}} <=> keys %{$HoH{$a}} } keys %HoH ) {
print "$family: { ";
for $role ( sort keys %{ $HoH{$family} } ) {
print "$role=$HoH{$family}{$role} ";
}
print "}\n";
}
# establish a sort order (rank) for each role
$i = 0;
for ( qw(lead wife son daughter pal pet) ) { $rank{$_} = ++$i }
# now print the whole thing sorted by number of members
foreach $family ( sort { keys %{ $HoH{$b} } <=> keys %{ $HoH{$a} } } keys %HoH ) {
print "$family: { ";
# and print these according to rank order
for $role ( sort { $rank{$a} <=> $rank{$b} } keys %{ $HoH{$family} } ) {
print "$role=$HoH{$family}{$role} ";
}
print "}\n";
}
MORE ELABORATE RECORDS
Declaration of MORE ELABORATE RECORDS
Here's a sample showing how to create and use a record whose fields are of
many different sorts:
$rec = {
TEXT => $string,
SEQUENCE => [ @old_values ],
LOOKUP => { %some_table },
THATCODE => <!>some_function,
THISCODE => sub { $_[0] ** $_[1] },
HANDLE => \*STDOUT,
};
print $rec->{TEXT};
print $rec->{SEQUENCE}[0];
$last = pop @ { $rec->{SEQUENCE} };
print $rec->{LOOKUP}{"key"};
($first_k, $first_v) = each %{ $rec->{LOOKUP} };
$answer = $rec->{THATCODE}->($arg);
$answer = $rec->{THISCODE}->($arg1, $arg2);
# careful of extra block braces on fh ref
print { $rec->{HANDLE} } "a string\n";
use FileHandle;
$rec->{HANDLE}->autoflush(1);
$rec->{HANDLE}->print(" a string\n");
Declaration of a HASH OF COMPLEX RECORDS
%TV = (
flintstones => {
series => "flintstones",
nights => [ qw(monday thursday friday) ],
members => [
{ name => "fred", role => "lead", age => 36, },
{ name => "wilma", role => "wife", age => 31, },
{ name => "pebbles", role => "kid", age => 4, },
],
},
jetsons => {
series => "jetsons",
nights => [ qw(wednesday saturday) ],
members => [
{ name => "george", role => "lead", age => 41, },
{ name => "jane", role => "wife", age => 39, },
{ name => "elroy", role => "kid", age => 9, },
],
},
simpsons => {
series => "simpsons",
nights => [ qw(monday) ],
members => [
{ name => "homer", role => "lead", age => 34, },
{ name => "marge", role => "wife", age => 37, },
{ name => "bart", role => "kid", age => 11, },
],
},
);
Generation of a HASH OF COMPLEX RECORDS
# reading from file
# this is most easily done by having the file itself be
# in the raw data format as shown above. perl is happy
# to parse complex data structures if declared as data, so
# sometimes it's easiest to do that
# here's a piece by piece build up
$rec = {};
$rec->{series} = "flintstones";
$rec->{nights} = [ find_days() ];
@members = ();
# assume this file in field=value syntax
while (<>) {
%fields = split /[\s=]+/;
push @members, { %fields };
}
$rec->{members} = [ @members ];
# now remember the whole thing
$TV{ $rec->{series} } = $rec;
###########################################################
# now, you might want to make interesting extra fields that
# include pointers back into the same data structure so if
# change one piece, it changes everywhere, like for example
# if you wanted a {kids} field that was a reference
# to an array of the kids' records without having duplicate
# records and thus update problems.
###########################################################
foreach $family (keys %TV) {
$rec = $TV{$family}; # temp pointer
@kids = ();
for $person ( @{ $rec->{members} } ) {
if ($person->{role} =~ /kid|son|daughter/) {
push @kids, $person;
}
}
# REMEMBER: $rec and $TV{$family} point to same data!!
$rec->{kids} = [ @kids ];
}
# you copied the array, but the array itself contains pointers
# to uncopied objects. this means that if you make bart get
# older via
$TV{simpsons}{kids}[0]{age}++;
# then this would also change in
print $TV{simpsons}{members}[2]{age};
# because $TV{simpsons}{kids}[0] and $TV{simpsons}{members}[2]
# both point to the same underlying anonymous hash table
# print the whole thing
foreach $family ( keys %TV ) {
print "the $family";
print " is on during @{ $TV{$family}{nights} }\n";
print "its members are:\n";
for $who ( @{ $TV{$family}{members} } ) {
print " $who->{name} ($who->{role}), age $who->{age}\n";
}
print "it turns out that $TV{$family}{lead} has ";
print scalar ( @{ $TV{$family}{kids} } ), " kids named ";
print join (", ", map { $_->{name} } @{ $TV{$family}{kids} } );
print "\n";
}
Database Ties
You cannot easily tie a multilevel data structure (such as a hash of
hashes) to a dbm file. The first problem is that all but GDBM and Berkeley
DB have size limitations, but beyond that, you also have problems with how
references are to be represented on disk. One experimental module that
does partially attempt to address this need is the MLDBM module. Check
your nearest CPAN site as described in the perlmodlib manpage for source
code to MLDBM.
SEE ALSO
perlref(1), perllol(1), perldata(1), perlobj(1)
AUTHOR
Tom Christiansen <tchrist@perl.com>
Last update: Wed Oct 23 04:57:50 MET DST 1996
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